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Table of Contents

1. Introduction to Physics

1-1 Physicists use a special language—part words, part equations—to describe the natural world

1-2 Success in physics requires well-developed problem-solving skills

1-3 Measurements in physics are based on standard units of time, length, and mass

1-4 Correct use of significant figures helps keep track of uncertainties in numerical values

1-5 Dimensional analysis is a powerful way to check the results of a physics calculation

2. Linear Motion

2-1 Studying motion in a straight line is the first step in understanding physics

2-2 Constant velocity means moving at a steady speed in the same direction

2-3 Velocity is the rate of change of position, and acceleration is the rate of change of velocity

2-4 Constant acceleration means velocity changes at a steady rate

2-5 Solving straight-line motion problems: Constant acceleration

2-6 Objects falling freely near Earth’s surface have constant acceleration

3. Motion in Two and Three Dimensions

3-1 The ideas of linear motion help us understand motion in two or three dimensions

3-2 A vector quantity has both a magnitude and a direction

3-3 Vectors can be described in terms of components

3-4 For motion in a plane, velocity and acceleration are vector quantities

3-5 A projectile moves in a plane and has a constant acceleration

3-6 You can solve projectile motion problems using techniques learned for straight-line motion

3-7 An object moving in a circle is accelerating even if its speed is constant

3-8 The vestibular system of the ear allows us to sense acceleration

4. Forces and Motion I: Newton’s Laws

4-1 How objects move is determined by the forces that act on them

4-2 If a net external force acts on an object, the object accelerates

4-3 Mass, weight, and inertia are distinct but related concepts

4-4 Making a free-body diagram is essential in solving any problem involving forces

4-5 Newton’s third law relates the forces that two objects exert on each other

4-6 All problems involving forces can be solved using the same series of steps

5. Forces and Motion II: Applications

5-1 We can use Newton’s laws in situations beyond those we have already studied

5-2 The static friction force changes magnitude to offset other applied forces

5-3 The kinetic friction force on a sliding object has a constant magnitude

5-4 Problems involving static and kinetic friction are like any other problem with forces

5-5 An object moving through air or water experiences a drag force

5-6 In uniform circular motion, the net force points toward the center of the circle

6. Work and Energy

6-1 The ideas of work and energy are intimately related

6-2 The work that a constant force does on a moving object depends on the magnitude and direction of the force

6-3 Kinetic energy and the work-energy theorem give us an alternative way to express Newton’s second law

6-4 The work-energy theorem can simplify many physics problems

6-5 The work-energy theorem is also valid for curved paths and varying forces

6-6 Potential energy is energy related to an object’s position

6-7 If only conservative forces do work, total mechanical energy is conserved

6-8 Energy conservation is an important tool for solving a wide variety of problems

6-9 Power is the rate at which energy is transferred

7. Momentum, Collisions, and Center of Mass

7-1 Newton’s third law helps lead us to the idea of momentum

7-2 Momentum is a vector that depends on an object’s mass, speed, and direction of motion

7-3 The total momentum of a system of objects is conserved under certain conditions

7-4 In an inelastic collision, some of the mechanical energy is lost

7-5 In an elastic collision, both momentum and mechanical energy are conserved

7-6 What happens in a collision is related to the time the colliding objects are in contact

7-7 The center of mass of a system moves as though all of the system’s mass were concentrated there

8. Rotational Motion

8-1 Rotation is an important and ubiquitous kind of motion

8-2 An object’s rotational kinetic energy is related to its angular velocity and how its mass is distributed

8-3 An object’s moment of inertia depends on its mass distribution and the choice of rotation axis

8-4 Conservation of mechanical energy also applies to rotating objects

8-5 The equations for rotational kinematics are almost identical to those for linear motion

8-6 Torque is to rotation as force is to translation

8-7 The techniques used for solving problems with Newton’s second law also apply to rotation problems

8-8 Angular momentum is conserved when there is zero net torque on a system

8-9 Rotational quantities such as angular momentum and torque are actually vectors

9. Elastic Properties of Matter: Stress and Strain

9-1 When an object is under stress, it deforms

9-2 An object changes length when under tensile or compressive stress

9-3 Solving stress-strain problems: Tension and compression

9-4 An object expands or shrinks when under volume stress

9-5 Solving stress-strain problems: Volume stress

9-6 A solid object changes shape when under shear stress

9-7 Solving stress-strain problems: Shear stress

9-8 Objects deform permanently or fail when placed under too much stress

9-9 Solving stress-strain problems: From elastic behavior to failure

10. Gravitation

10-1 Gravitation is a force of universal importance

10-2 Newton’s law of universal gravitation explains the orbit of the Moon

10-3 The gravitational potential energy of two objects is negative and increases toward zero as the objects are moved farther apart

10-4 Newton’s law of universal gravitation explains Kepler’s laws for the orbits of planets and satellites

10-5 Apparent weightlessness can have major physiological effects on space travelers

11. Fluids

11-1 Liquids and gases are both examples of fluids

11-2 Density measures the amount of mass per unit volume

11-3 Pressure in a fluid is caused by the impact of molecules

11-4 In a fluid at rest, pressure increases with increasing depth

11-5 Scientists and medical professionals use various units for measuring fluid pressure

11-6 A difference in pressure on opposite sides of an object produces a net force on the object

11-7 A pressure increase at one point in a fluid causes a pressure increase throughout the fluid

11-8 Archimedes’ principle helps us understand buoyancy

11-9 Fluids in motion behave differently depending on the flow speed and the fluid viscosity

11-10 Bernoulli’s equation helps us relate pressure and speed in fluid motion

11-11 Viscosity is important in many types of fluid flow

11-12 Surface tension explains the shape of raindrops and how respiration is possible

12. Oscillations

12-1 We live in a world of oscillations

12-2 Oscillations are caused by the interplay between a restoring force and inertia

12-3 The simplest form of oscillation occurs when the restoring force obeys Hooke’s law

12-4 Mechanical energy is conserved in simple harmonic motion

12-5 The motion of a pendulum is approximately simple harmonic

12-6 A physical pendulum has its mass distributed over its volume

12-7 When damping is present, the amplitude of an oscillating system decreases over time

12-8 Forcing a system to oscillate at the right frequency can cause resonance

13. Waves

13-1 Waves are disturbances that travel from place to place

13-2 Mechanical waves can be transverse, longitudinal, or a combination of these

13-3 Sinusoidal waves are related to simple harmonic motion

13-4 The propagation speed of a wave depends on the properties of the wave medium

13-5 When two waves are present simultaneously, the total disturbance is the sum of the individual waves

13-6 A standing wave is caused by interference between waves traveling in opposite directions

13-7 Wind instruments, the human voice, and the human ear use standing sound waves

13-8 Two sound waves of slightly different frequencies produce beats

13-9 The intensity of a wave equals the power that it delivers per square meter

13-10 The frequency of a sound depends on the motion of the source and the listener

14. Thermodynamics I

14-1 A knowledge of thermodynamics is essential for understanding almost everything around you—including your own body

14-2 Temperature is a measure of the energy within a substance

14-3 In a gas, the relationship between temperature and molecular kinetic energy is a simple one

14-4 Most substances expand when the temperature increases

14-5 Heat is energy that flows due to a temperature difference

14-6 Energy must enter or leave an object in order for it to change phase

14-7 Heat can be transferred by radiation, convection, or conduction

15. Thermodynamics II

15-1 The laws of thermodynamics involve energy and entropy

15-2 The first law of thermodynamics relates heat flow, work done, and internal energy change

15-3 A graph of pressure versus volume helps to describe what happens in a thermodynamic process

15-4 More heat is required to change the temperature of a gas isobarically than isochorically

15-5 The second law of thermodynamics describes why some processes are impossible

15-6 The entropy of a system is a measure of its disorder

16. Electrostatics I: Electric Charge, Forces, and Fields

16-1 Electric forces and electric charges are all around you—and within you

16-2 Matter contains positive and negative electric charge

16-3 Charge can flow freely in a conductor, but not in an insulator

16-4 Coulomb’s law describes the force between charged objects

16-5 The concept of electric field helps us visualize how charges exert forces at a distance

16-6 Gauss’s law gives us more insight into the electric field

16-7 In certain situations Gauss’s law helps us to calculate the electric field and to determine how charge is distributed

17. Electrostatics II: Electric Potential Energy and Electric Potential

17-1 Electric energy is important in nature, technology, and biological systems

17-2 Electric potential energy changes when a charge moves in an electric field

17-3 Electric potential equals electric potential energy per charge

17-4 The electric potential has the same value everywhere on an equipotential surface

17-5 A capacitor stores equal amounts of positive and negative charge

17-6 A capacitor is a storehouse of electric potential energy

17-7 Capacitors can be combined in series or in parallel

17-8 Placing a dielectric between the plates of a capacitor increases the capacitance

18. Electric Charges in Motion

18-1 Life on Earth and our technological society are only possible because of charges in motion

18-2 Electric current equals the rate at which charge flows

18-3 The resistance to current flow through an object depends on the object’s resistivity and dimensions

18-4 Resistance is important in both technology and physiology

18-5 Kirchhoff’s rules help us to analyze simple electric circuits

18-6 The rate at which energy is produced or taken in by a circuit element depends on current and voltage

18-7 A circuit containing a resistor and capacitor has a current that varies with time

19. Magnetism

19-1 Magnetic forces are interactions between two magnets

19-2 Magnetism is an interaction between moving charges

19-3 A moving point charge can experience a magnetic force

19-4 A mass spectrometer uses magnetic forces to differentiate atoms of different masses

19-5 Magnetic fields exert forces on current-carrying wires

19-6 A magnetic field can exert a torque on a current loop

19-7 Ampère’s law describes the magnetic field created by current-carrying wires

19-8 Two current-carrying wires exert magnetic forces on each other

20. Electromagnetic Induction

20-1 The world runs on electromagnetic induction

20-2 A changing magnetic flux creates an electric field

20-3 Lenz’s law describes the direction of the induced emf

20-4 Faraday’s law explains how alternating currents are generated

21. Alternating-Current Circuits

21-1 Most circuits use alternating current

21-2 We need to analyze ac circuits differently than dc circuits

21-3 Transformers allow us to change the voltage of an ac power source

21-4 An inductor is a circuit element that opposes changes in current

21-5 In a circuit with an inductor and capacitor, charge and current oscillate

21-6 When an ac voltage source is attached in series to an inductor, resistor, and capacitor, the circuit can display resonance

21-7 Diodes are important parts of many common circuits

22. Electromagnetic Waves

22-1 Light is just one example of an electromagnetic wave

22-2 In an electromagnetic plane wave, electric and magnetic fields both oscillate

22-3 Maxwell’s equations explain why electromagnetic waves are possible

22-4 Electromagnetic waves carry both electric and magnetic energy, and come in packets called photons

23. Wave Properties of Light

23-1 The wave nature of light explains much about how light behaves

23-2 Huygens’ principle explains the reflection and refraction of light

23-3 In some cases light undergoes total internal reflection at the boundary between media

23-4 The dispersion of light explains the colors from a prism or a rainbow

23-5 In a polarized light wave, the electric field vector points in a specific direction

23-6 Light waves reflected from the layers of a thin film can interfere with each other, producing dazzling effects

23-7 Interference can occur when light passes through two narrow, parallel slits

23-8 Diffraction is the spreading of light when it passes through a narrow opening

23-9 The diffraction of light through a circular aperture is important in optics

24. Geometrical Optics

24-1 Mirrors or lenses can be used to form images

24-2 A plane mirror produces an image that is reversed back to front

24-3 A concave mirror can produce an image of a different size than the object

24-4 Simple equations give the position and magnification of the image made by a concave mirror

24-5 A convex mirror always produces an image that is smaller than the object

24-6 The same equations used for concave mirrors also work for convex mirrors

24-7 Convex lenses form images like concave mirrors and vice versa

24-8 The focal length of a lens is determined by its index of refraction and the curvature of its surfaces

24-9 A camera and the human eye use different methods to focus on objects at various distances

25. Relativity

25-1 The concepts of relativity may seem exotic, but they’re part of everyday life

25-2 Newton’s mechanics include some ideas of relativity

25-3 The Michelson-Morley experiment shows that light does not obey Newtonian relativity

25-4 Einstein’s relativity predicts that the time between events depends on the observer

25-5 Einstein’s relativity also predicts that the length of an object depends on the observer

25-6 The relative velocity of two objects is constrained by the speed of light, the ultimate speed limit

25-7 The equations for momentum and kinetic energy must be modified at very high speeds

25-8 Einstein’s general theory of relativity describes the fundamental nature of gravity

26. Quantum Physics and Atomic Structure

26-1 Experiments that probe the nature of light and matter reveal the limits of classical physics

26-2 The photoelectric effect and blackbody radiation show that light is absorbed and emitted in the form of photons

26-3 As a result of its photon character, light changes wavelength when it is scattered

26-4 Matter, like light, has aspects of both waves and particles

26-5 The spectra of light emitted and absorbed by atoms show that atomic energies are quantized

26-6 Models by Bohr and Schrödinger give insight into the intriguing structure of the atom

27. Nuclear Physics

27-1 The quantum concepts that help explain atoms are essential for understanding the nucleus

27-2 The strong force holds nuclei together

27-3 The binding energy of nuclei helps explain why some are more stable than others

27-4 The largest nuclei can release energy by undergoing fission and splitting apart

27-5 The smallest nuclei can release energy if they are forced to fuse together

27-6 Unstable nuclei may emit alpha, beta, or gamma radiation

28. Particle Physics

28-1 Studying the ultimate constituents of matter helps reveal the nature of the physical universe

28-2 Most forms of matter can be explained by just a handful of fundamental particles

28-3 Four fundamental forces describe all interactions between material objects

28-4 We live in an expanding universe, and the nature of most of its contents is a mystery

Appendix A SI Units and Conversion Factors

Appendix B Numerical Data

Appendix C Periodic Table of Elements

Math Tutorial MT1

Answers Ans1

Index I1

Authors

Roger Freedman

Dr. Roger A. Freedman is a Lecturer in Physics at the University of California, Santa Barbara.

He was an undergraduate at the University of California campuses in San Diego and Los Angeles, and did his doctoral research in theoretical nuclear physics at Stanford University. He came to UCSB in 1981 after three years of teaching and doing research at the University of Washington. At UCSB, Dr. Freedman has taught in both the Department of Physics and the College of Creative Studies, a branch of the university intended for highly gifted and motivated undergraduates. In recent years, he has helped to develop computer-based tools for learning introductory physics and astronomy and has been a pioneer in the use of classroom response systems and the “flipped” classroom model at UCSB. Roger holds a commercial pilot’s license and was an early organizer of the San Diego Comic-Con, now the world’s largest popular culture convention.

Todd Ruskell

As a Teaching Professor of Physics at the Colorado School of Mines, Todd G. Ruskell focuses on teaching at the introductory level, and continually develops more effective ways to help students learn. One method used in large enrollment introductory courses is Studio Physics. This collaborative, hands-on environment helps students develop better intuition about, and conceptual models of, physical phenomena through an active learning approach. Dr. Ruskell brings his experience in improving students’ conceptual understanding to the text, as well as a strong liberal arts perspective. Dr. Ruskell’s love of physics began with a B.A. in physics from Lawrence University in Appleton, Wisconsin. He went on to receive an M.S. and Ph.D. in optical sciences from the University of Arizona. He has received awards for teaching excellence, including Colorado School of Mines’ Alumni Teaching Award. Dr. Ruskell currently serves on the physics panel and advisory board for the NANSLO (North American Network of Science Labs Online) project.

Philip R. Kesten

Dr. Philip Kesten, Associate Professor of Physics and Associate Provost for Residential Learning Communities at Santa Clara University, holds a B.S. in physics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and received his Ph.D. in high energy particle physics from the University of Michigan. Since joining the Santa Clara faculty in 1990, Dr. Kesten has also served as Chair of Physics, Faculty Director of the ATOM and da Vinci Residential Learning Communities, and Director of the Ricard Memorial Observatory. He has received awards for teaching excellence and curriculum innovation, was Santa Clara's Faculty Development Professor for 2004-2005, and was named the California Professor of the Year in 2005 by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Education. Dr. Kesten is co-founder of Docutek, (A SirsiDynix Company), an Internet software company, and has served as the Senior Editor for Modern Dad, a newsstand magazine.

David L. Tauck

Dr. David Tauck, Associate Professor of Biology, holds both a B.A. in biology and an M.A. in Spanish from Middlebury College. He earned his Ph.D. in physiology at Duke University and completed postdoctoral fellowships at Stanford University and Harvard University in anesthesia and neuroscience, respectively. Since joining the Santa Clara University faculty in 1987, he has served as Chair of the Biology Department, the College Committee on Rank and Tenure, and the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee; he has also served as president of the local chapter of Phi Beta Kappa. Dr. Tauck currently serves as the Faculty Director in Residence of the da Vinci Residential Learning Community.

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